We summarize progress made in theoretical astrophysics and cosmology over the past decade and areas of interest for the coming decade. This Report is prepared as the TF09 "Astrophysics and Cosmology" topical group summary for the Theory Frontier as part of the Snowmass 2021 process.
The relation of the pole and running heavy quark masses of order O(αs4) in perturbative quantum chromodynamics (pQCD) can be obtained using the Principle of Maximum Conformality (PMC), a formalism that provides a rigorous method for eliminating renormalization scale and scheme ambiguities for observables in pQCD. Using PMC, an optimal renormalization scale for the heavy quark mass ratio is determined, independent of the renormalization scale and scheme up to order αs4. Precise values are then obtained for the PMC pole masses of the heavy quarks MbPMC=4.86−0.02+0.03 GeV, MtPMC=172.3±0.6 GeV, and the running mass mtPMC=162.6±0.7 GeV at the PMC scale.
Standard interpolating operators for charged mesons, e.g. JB=bˉiγ5u for B−, are not gauge invariant in QED and therefore problematic for perturbative methods. We propose a gauge invariant interpolating operator by adding an auxiliary charged scalar ΦB, JB(0)=JBΦB, which reproduces all the universal soft and collinear logs. The modified LSZ-factor is shown to be infrared finite which is a necessary condition for validating the approach. At O(α), this is equivalent to a specific Dirac dressing of charged operators. A generalisation thereof, using iterated integrals, establishes the equivalence to all orders and provides a transparent alternative viewpoint. The method is discussed by the example of the leptonic decay B−→ℓ−νˉ for which a numerical study is to follow. The formalism itself is valid for any spin, flavour and set of final states (e.g. B−→π0ℓ−νˉ).
We investigated the strange hadrons transverse momentum (pT) spectra in Au-Au collision at sNN = 54.4 GeV in the framework of modified Hagedorn function with embedded flow. We extracted the kinetic freeze-out temperature T0, transverse flow velocity βT, kinetic freeze-out volume V, mean transverse momentum <pT>, the entropy parameter n and the multiplicity parameter N0. We reported that all these parameters increase towards the central collisions. The larger kinetic freeze-out temperature , transverse flow velocity, kinetic freeze-out volume and the entropy parameter (n) in central collisions compared to peripheral collisions show the early decoupling of the particles in central collisions. In addition, all the above parameters are mass dependent. The kinetic freeze-out temperature (T0), the entropy parameter n and mean transverse momentum (<pT>) are larger for massive particles, while the transverse flow velocity (βT), kinetic freeze-out volume (V) and the multiplicity parameter (N0) show the opposite behavior. Larger T0, n and smaller βT as well as V of the heavier particles indicates the early freeze-out of the heavier particles, while larger <pT> for the heavier particles evince that the effect of radial flow is stronger in heavier particles. The separate set of parameters for each particle shows the multiple kinetic freeze-out scenario, where the mass dependent kinetic freeze-out volume shows the volume differential freeze-out scenario. We also checked the correlation among different parameters, which include the correlation of T0 and βT, T0 and V, βT and V, <pT> and T0, <pT> and βT, <pT> and V, n and T0, n and βT, and n and V, and they all are observed to have positive correlations with each other which validates our results.
The Standard Model predicts a long-range force, proportional to GF2/r5, between fermions due to the exchange of a pair of neutrinos. This quantum force is feeble and has not been observed yet. In this paper, we compute this force in the presence of neutrino backgrounds, both for isotropic and directional background neutrinos. We find that for the case of directional background the force can have a 1/r dependence and it can be significantly enhanced compared to the vacuum case. In particular, background effects caused by reactor, solar, and supernova neutrinos enhance the force by many orders of magnitude. The enhancement, however, occurs only in the direction parallel to the direction of the background neutrinos. We discuss the experimental prospects of detecting the neutrino force in neutrino backgrounds and find that the effect is close to the available sensitivity of the current fifth force experiments. Yet, the angular spread of the neutrino flux and that of the test masses reduce the strength of this force. The results are encouraging and a detailed experimental study is called for to check if the effect can be probed.
In this paper, the tunneling of fermions near the event horizon of Kerr-Newman-de Sitter black hole is investigated in frame dragging coordinate systems, Eddington coordinate system and Painleve coordinate system by using Dirac equation with Lorentz violation theory, Feynman prescription and WKB approximation. The Hawking temperature, heat capacity and change in Bekenstein-Hawking entropy are modified due to presence of Lorentz violation theory. The modified Hawking temperatures, heat capacities and change in Bekenstein-Hawking entropies near the event horizon of Kerr-Newman-de Sitter black hole would increase or decrease depending upon the choices of ether like vectors uα. In the absence of Lorentz violation theory, the original Hawking temperature, entropy and heat capacity are recovered.
As the U(1) extension of the minimal supersymmetric standard model, the U(1)XSSM has new super fields such as right-handed neutrinos and three Higgs singlets. In the U(1)XSSM, the lightest CP-even Higgs mass mh0 is researched through the Higgs effective potential with one loop corrections. We also calculate the Higgs decays h0→γγ, h0→VV(V=W,Z), h0→llˉZ and h0→ννˉZ. The obtained results are reasonable, which are in favour of the study of the Higgs characteristic and the phenomenology of the U(1)XSSM.
In this paper we propose recurrence relations for the dipole densities in QCD, which allows us to find these densities from the solution to the BFKL equation. We resolve these relations in the diffusion approximation for the BFKL kernel. Based on this solution, we found the sum of large Pomeron loops. This sum generates the scattering amplitude that decreases at large values of rapidity Y. It turns out that such behaviour of the scattering amplitudes is an artifact of diffusion approximation. This approximation leads to the unitarization without saturation both in deep inelastic scattering and in dipole-dipole interaction at high energies.
We present the results for the confinement potential of the Cornell type within the framework of the generalized Soft Wall holographic model (with quadratic dilaton background in the metric) which contains an additional parameter responsible for the value of intercept of the linear Regge spectrum. Next, we note that the Cornell potential arises also in some Soft Wall models which do not lead to Regge-like spectrum. As an example, we demonstrate this property in a model with linear dilaton background in the metric. This example is at odds with intuition based on the hadron string picture that the linearly rising potential and Regge-like spectrum are directly related.
One of the most important parts of the QCD phase diagram of strongly interacting matter is the Critical End Point. The non-monotonic behavior of the conserved quantities like net-baryon (ΔB), net-charge (ΔQ), and net-strangeness (ΔS) are believed to be the signatures of the QCD Critical End Point (CEP) as a function of the energy. We study the effect of the QCD critical point on moments of net-baryon in the Polyakov loop enhanced Nambu-Jona-Lasinio (PNJL) model of QCD with six quark and eight quark interactions. The study is performed at energies similar to RHIC beam energy scan (BES). Experimentally measuring conserved quantities is difficult due to systematic limitations, therefore net-proton, net-pion, and net-kaon are measured as the proxy of ΔB, ΔQ, and ΔS. Thus the need for different models becomes predominant to estimate the value of different observables. Higher-order moments like skewness (S), kurtosis (κ), and their system volume independent products (M/σ2,sσ, κσ2) which are calculated in the PNJL model, are sensitive to the produced correlation length of the hot and dense medium, making them more prone to search for the critical point. Recent studies in the subensemble acceptance method (SAM) on the HRG model shows the dependency of the measure higher order moment on the experimental acceptance. We used SAM to analyze the behavior of κσ2 of net baryon distribution within the subvolume system for various acceptance fractions. These results can be directly mapped to the percentage of the subvolume (particle) of the total volume (conserved quantities). The results are compared to the STAR net-proton and proton data with different energies to understand the existence of critical point. For reference, results are also compared with the theoretical UrQMD and HRG models.
The Taylor expansion of thermodynamic observables at a finite baryon chemical potential μB is an oft-used method to circumvent the well-known sign problem of Lattice QCD. Owing to the associated difficulty and limitations of precision in calculating these high-ordered Taylor coefficients, it becomes essential to look for various resummation schemes which can mitigate the computational cost, besides providing trustworthy estimates of different thermodynamic observables. Recently, a way to exponentially resum the contribution of the first N charge density correlation functions D1,…,DN to the Taylor series to all orders in μB was proposed in Phys. Rev. Lett. 128, 2, 022001 (2022). Since the correlation functions Dn are calculated stochastically using estimates from different random volume sources, the resummation formulation gets affected by the biased estimates. These estimates can become very drastic and can radically misdirect the calculations for large values of N and μ and also for observables which are higher order μ derivatives of free energy, specially at lower temperatures. In this work, we present a cumulant expansion procedure that allows to investigate and regulate these biased estimates at different orders in μ. We find that the unbiased estimates in the cumulant expansion can truly capture the genuine higher-order stochastic fluctuations of the higher order correlation functions, which got suppressed by the exponential resummation formulation. Finally, we discover an unbiased formalism of the exponential resummation, which when expanded in a series, can exactly reproduce the Taylor series upto a desired power in μ. We are also able to regain the knowledge of reweighting factor and many other important properties of the partition function, which got entirely lost through the implementation of cumulant expansion scheme.
We study quark and lepton mass matrices derived from magnetized T2/Z2 orbifold models. Quark and lepton masses have a large hierarchy. In addition, mixing angles are large in the lepton sector, while those are small in the quark sector. We find that this structure can be realized in certain flavor models, which are identified by the zero points of the zero-mode wave functions of fermions and Higgs modes. We classify such realistic flavor models. Fixed points τ=i, e2πi/3 and i∞ of the modulus τ play a role in realizing a large mass hierarchy through our scenario, where residual S, ST, and T symmetries remain and the lightest Higgs modes can correspond to eigenstates of residual symmetries at the leading order. As a result, we find that there are 24 flavor models in total which can be realistic in a vicinity of S-symmetric vacuum but no flavor models for ST and T-symmetric vacua.
We review the predictions of the quark model for the doubly-heavy tetraquarks QQqˉqˉ. The possibility of resonances near the BB∗ threshold in addition to a deeply bound state is discussed.
We investigate and compare additional CP-even, CP-odd and charged scalar states appearing in two popular Beyond the Standard Model scenarios. We focus on the simplest possible Higgs sector within warped extra-dimensions and supersymmetry, with the aim to differentiate between them. In each case, we analyze the couplings of the new Higgs states, looking for distinguishing signatures. We show that the couplings of the Standard Model gauge bosons to the first Kaluza-Klein Higgs states of the extra-dimensional setup (CP-even, CP-odd and charged) are very similar to those of the heavy Higgs states of the MSSM in the decoupling region. We also find that the Yukawa couplings in the extra-dimensional scenario can mimic the different types of Yukawa couplings of general Two-Higgs Doublet Models, in particular the so-called Type-II couplings, which are similar to those in the MSSM.
This report summarizes the findings of the CF1 Topical Subgroup to Snowmass 2021, which was focused on particle dark matter. One of the most important scientific goals of the next decade is to reveal the nature of dark matter (DM). To accomplish this goal, we must delve deep, to cover high priority targets including weakly-interacting massive particles (WIMPs), and search wide, to explore as much motivated DM parameter space as possible. A diverse, continuous portfolio of experiments at large, medium, and small scales that includes both direct and indirect detection techniques maximizes the probability of discovering particle DM. Detailed calibrations and modeling of signal and background processes are required to make a convincing discovery. In the event that a candidate particle is found through different means, for example at a particle collider, the program described in this report is also essential to show that it is consistent with the actual cosmological DM. The US has a leading role in both direct and indirect detection dark matter experiments -- to maintain this leading role, it is imperative to continue funding major experiments and support a robust R\&D program.
Generically, non-Standard-Model particles contribute to processes with order-one charge-parity (CP) violating phases, as CP is not a fundamental symmetry of nature. The exploration of CP violation becomes therefore a sensitive search for non-Standard-Model physics. We briefly review the current status of CP-violation studies in bottom- and charm-quark transitions focusing on those quantities that are most sensitive to non-Standard-Model contributions and discuss opportunities and challenges for the next decade and beyond.
The decay KS→(μ+μ−)ℓ=0, with the final muon pair in an angular-momentum zero state, is a sensitive probe of short-distance physics. It has recently been shown how to extract this branching ratio from neutral kaon decay data. We point out that the impact of indirect CP violation on the standard-model prediction of this mode, while nominally of order ∣ϵK∣∼10−3, is enhanced by a large amplitude ratio and leads to a shift of the branching ratio Br(KS→μ+μ−)ℓ=0 by a few percent, depending on the size of a relative phase that can be extracted from data. We also update the standard-model prediction of the short-distance contribution.
A future Higgs Factory will provide improved precision on measurements of Higgs couplings beyond those obtained by the LHC, and will enable a broad range of investigations across the fields of fundamental physics, including the mechanism of electroweak symmetry breaking, the origin of the masses and mixing of fundamental particles, the predominance of matter over antimatter, and the nature of dark matter. Future colliders will measure Higgs couplings to a few per cent, giving a window to beyond the Standard Model (BSM) physics in the 1-10 TeV range. In addition, they will make precise measurements of the Higgs width, and characterize the Higgs self-coupling. This report details the work of the EF01 and EF02 working groups for the Snowmass 2021 study.
Cosmology may give rise to appreciable populations of both particle dark matter and primordial black holes (PBH) with the combined mass density providing the observationally inferred value ΩDM≈0.26. However, previous studies have highlighted that scenarios with both particle dark matter and PBH are strongly excluded by γ-ray limits for particle dark matter with a velocity independent thermal cross section ⟨σv⟩∼3×10−26cm3/s, as is the case for classic WIMP dark matter. Here we extend these existing studies on s-wave annihilating particle dark matter to ascertain the limits from diffuse γ-rays on velocity dependent annihilations which are p-wave with ⟨σv⟩∝v2 or d-wave with ⟨σv⟩∝v4, which we find to be considerably less constraining. Furthermore, we highlight that even if the freeze-out process is p-wave it is relatively common for (loop/phase-space) suppressed s-wave processes to actually provide the leading contributions to the experimentally constrained γ-ray flux from the PBH halo. This work also utilyses a refined treatment of the PBH dark matter density profile and outlines an improved application of extra-galactic γ-ray bounds.
Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) are among the best-motivated dark matter candidates. In the standard scenario where the freeze-out occurs well after the end of inflationary reheating, they are in tension with the severe experimental constraints. Here, we investigate the thermal freeze-out of WIMPs occurring {\it during} reheating, while the inflaton ϕ coherently oscillates in a generic potential ∝ϕn. Depending on the value of n and the spin of the inflaton decaying products, the evolution of the radiation and inflaton energy densities can show distinct features, therefore, having a considerable impact on the freeze-out behavior of WIMPs. As a result of the injection of entropy during reheating, the parameter space compatible with the observed DM relic abundance is enlarged. In particular, the WIMP thermally averaged annihilation cross-section can be several magnitudes lower than that in the standard case. Finally, we discuss the current bounds from dark matter indirect detection experiments, and explore future challenges and opportunities.
We study the structural properties like the gravitational mass, radius and tidal deformability of dark matter (DM) admixed strange quark stars (SQSs). For the purpose we consider the vector MIT Bag model to describe the strange quark matter (SQM) and investigate the possible presence of accreted DM in the SQSs consequently forming DM admixed SQSs. We introduce feeble interaction between SQM and the accreted fermionic DM via a vector dark boson mediator. Considering the present literature, in the context of possible presence of DM in SQSs, this work is the first to consider interaction between DM and SQM in the DM admixed SQSs. The mass of the DM fermion (mχ) and the vector mediator (mξ) and the coupling (yξ) between them are determined in accordance with the constraint from Bullet cluster and the present day relic abundance, respectively. We find that the presence of DM reduces both the mass and radius of the star compared to the no-DM case. The massive the DM fermion, the lower the values of maximum mass and radius of the DM admixed SQSs. For the chosen values of mχ and corresponding values of mξ and yξ, the computed structural properties of the DM admixed SQSs satisfy all the various present day astrophysical constraints.We obtain massive DM admixed SQSs configurations consistent with the GW190814 observational data. Hence the secondary compact object associated with this event may be a DM admixed SQS.
A thorough understanding of neutrino cross sections in a wide range of energies is crucial for the successful execution of the entire neutrino physics program. In order to extract neutrino properties, long-baseline experiments need an accurate determination of neutrino cross sections within their detector(s). Since very few of the needed neutrino cross sections across the energy spectrum are directly measured, we emphasize the need for theoretical input and indirect measurements such as electron scattering, which would complement direct measurements. In this report we briefly summarize the current status of our knowledge of the neutrino cross sections and articulate needs of the experiments, ongoing and planned, at energies ranging from CEvNS and supernova neutrino energies to the DUNE and atmospheric neutrino energies.
We studied the properties of the heavy quarkonia in the presence of finite quark-chemical potential for different number of flavors by using the quasi particle approach. The effect of the finite quark-chemical potential has been incorporated through the quasi-particle Debye mass to examine the binding energies of the quarkonium states. From the imaginary part of the potential we have calculated the thermal width of the ground state of the quarkonia and found that the thermal width increases with finite quark-chemical potential. The dissociation temperature (T_D) of the J/psi and Upsilon have been calculated in the presence of finite quark-chemical potential for different flavors (i.e., N_f = 1, 2 and 3). The effect of the finite quark-chemical potential on the mass spectra of the quarkonium states has been also studied.
Within the framework of intermittency analysis, a search for critical fluctuations is ongoing to locate the possible critical point in the quantum chromodynamics phase diagram. In this study, self-similar critical fluctuations from a critical Monte Carlo (CMC) model have been incorporated into the cascade ultrarelativistic quantum molecular dynamics (UrQMD) model. This hybrid UrQMD+CMC model exhibits a clear power-law behavior of scaled factorial moment for charged particles in Au+Au collisions at sNN = 7.7-200 GeV. By comparing the UrQMD+CMC model results with those from the STAR experiment, it is found that the value of a calculated scaling exponent falls in the range of the experimental measurement when 1-2 \% signal of intermittency fluctuations is added into the UrQMD sample.
The present report of the RF2 Topical Group to Snowmass 2021 describes the physics case for the studies of weak decays of strange and light quarks. Ongoing and proposed precision measurements of kaon, hyperon, pion and η(′) meson decays allow for unique tests of the Standard Model (SM). This includes precision measurements of the elements of the CKM quark-mixing matrix leading to stringent unitarity tests; precision symmetry tests including lepton flavor and lepton number conservation; and precision lepton flavor universality tests. In the context of models beyond the SM description, strange and light quark decay experiments provide sensitivity to new physics up to the PeV mass scale, as well as leading sensitivities to scenarios involving feebly interacting hidden sectors below the GeV mass scale.
Newton's force law dtdP=F is derived from the Schrödinger equation for isolated macroscopic bodies, composite states of e.g., N∼1025,1051,… atoms and molecules, at finite body temperatures. We first review three aspects of quantum mechanics (QM) in this context: (i) Heisenberg's uncertainty relations for their center of mass (CM), (ii) the diffusion of the C.M. wave packet, and (iii) a finite body-temperature which implies a metastable (mixed-) state of the body: photon emissions and self-decoherence. They explain the origin of the classical trajectory for a macroscopic body. The ratio between the range Rq over which the quantum fluctuations of its CM are effective, and the body's (linear) size L0, Rq/L0≲1 or Rq/L0≫1, tells whether the body's CM behaves classically or quantum mechanically, respectively. In the first case, Newton's force law for its CM follows from the Ehrenfest theorem. We illustrate this for weak gravitational forces, a harmonic-oscillator potential, and for constant external electromagnetic fields slowly varying in space. The derivation of the canonical Hamilton equations for many-body systems is also discussed. Effects due to the body's finite size such as the gravitational tidal forces appear in perturbation theory. Our work is consistent with the well-known idea that the emergence of classical physics in QM is due to the environment-induced decoherence, but complements and completes it, by clarifying the conditions under which Newton's equations follow from QM, and by deriving them explicitly.
A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search-based optimization technique based on the principles of Genetics and Natural Selection. We present an algorithm which enhances the classical GA with input from quantum annealers. As in a classical GA, the algorithm works by breeding a population of possible solutions based on their fitness. However, the population of individuals is defined by the continuous couplings on the quantum annealer, which then give rise via quantum annealing to the set of corresponding phenotypes that represent attempted solutions. This introduces a form of directed mutation into the algorithm that can enhance its performance in various ways. Two crucial enhancements come from the continuous couplings having strengths that are inherited from the fitness of the parents (so-called nepotism) and from the annealer couplings allowing the entire population to be influenced by the fittest individuals (so-called quantum-polyandry). We find our algorithm to be significantly more powerful on several simple problems than a classical GA.
Since general relativity is the unique theory of massless spin 2 particles at large distances, the most reasonable way to have significant modifications is to introduce one or more light scalars that mediate a new long-range force. Most existing studies of such scalars invoke models that exhibit some kind of "screening" at short distances to hide the force from solar system tests. However, as is well known, such modifications also exhibit superluminality, which can be interpreted as a form of acausality. In this work we explore explicitly subluminal and causal scalar field models. In particular, we study a conformally coupled scalar ϕ, with a small coupling to matter to obey solar system bounds, and a non-canonical kinetic term K(X) (X=(∂ϕ)2/2) that obeys all subluminality constraints and is hyperbolic. We consider K(X) that is canonical for small X, but beyond some nonlinear scale enters a new scaling regime of power p, with 1/2<p<1 (the DBI kinetic term is the limit p=1/2 and a canonical scalar is p=1). As opposed to screening (and superluminality), this new force becomes more and more important in the regime of high densities (and subluminality). We then turn to the densest environments to put bounds on this new interaction. We compute constraints from precession in binary systems such as Hulse-Taylor, we compute corrections to neutron star hydrostatic equilibrium, and we compute power in radiation, both tensor mode corrections and the new scalar mode, which can be important during mergers.
We model vacuum fluctuations in quantum gravity with a scalar field, characterized by a high occupation number, coupled to the metric. The occupation number of the scalar is given by a thermal density matrix, whose form is motivated by fluctuations in the vacuum energy, which have been shown to be conformal near a light-sheet horizon. For the experimental measurement of interest in an interferometer, the size of the energy fluctuations is fixed by the area of a surface bounding the volume of spacetime being interrogated by an interferometer. We compute the interferometer response to these "geontropic" scalar-metric fluctuations, and apply our results to current and future interferometer measurements, such as LIGO and the proposed GQuEST experiment.
The existence of eV-mass sterile neutrinos is not ruled out because of persistent experimental anomalies. Upcoming multi-messenger detections of neutron-star merger remnants could provide indirect constraints on the existence of these particles. We explore the active-sterile flavor conversion phenomenology in a two-flavor scenario (1 active + 1 sterile species) as a function of the sterile neutrino mixing parameters, neutrino emission angle from the accretion torus, and temporal evolution of the merger remnant. The torus geometry and the neutron richness of the remnant are responsible for the occurrence of multiple resonant active-sterile conversions. The number of resonances strongly depends on the neutrino emission direction above or inside the remnant torus and leads to large production of sterile neutrinos (and no antineutrinos) in the proximity of the polar axis as well as more sterile antineutrinos than neutrinos in the equatorial region. As the black hole torus evolves in time, the shallower baryon density is responsible for more adiabatic flavor conversion, leading to larger regions of the mass-mixing parameter space being affected by flavor mixing. Our findings imply that the production of sterile states could have indirect implications on the disk cooling rate, its outflows, and related electromagnetic observables which remain to be assessed.
Simple monomial inflationary scenarios have been ruled out by recent observations. In this work we revisit the next simplest scenario, a single--field model where the scalar potential is a polynomial of degree four which features a concave ``almost'' saddle point. We focus on trans--Planckian field values. We reparametrize the potential, which greatly simplifies the procedure for finding acceptbale model parameters. This allows for the first comprehensive scan of parameter space consistent with recent Planck and BICEP/Keck 2018 measurements. Even for trans--Planckian field values the tensor--to--scalar ratio r can be as small as O(10−8), but the model can also saturate the current upper bound. In contrast to the small--field version of this model, radiative stability does not lead to strong constraints on the parameters of the inflaton potential. For very large field values the potential can be approximated by the quartic term; as well known, this allows eternal inflation even for field energy well below the reduced Planck mass MPl, with Hubble parameter H∼10−2MPl. More interestingly, we find a region of parameter space that even supports {\em two phases of eternal inflation}. The second epoch only occurs if the slope at the would--be saddle point is very small, and has H∼10−5MPl; it can only be realized if r∼10−2, within the sensitivity range of next--generation CMB observations.
The pattern of radiation energy deposition in substances at the microscopic level of lattice, molecule size, or the cell's nucleus is not uniform. The energy of radiation is transferred to the substance medium in the form of discrete, time-dependent, spatially correlated events with excitations/ionizations are the processes involved. The response of material on the macroscopic level to radiation effects depends on the microscopic pattern of energy deposition. A mathematical model that combines the specific number of sites available for the interaction of radiation and the detected signals of the property was proposed and discussed. This model emphasizes the phenomenon of log-dose response for a moderate amounts of nuclear radiation affects the material, especially detector materials. A parameter (αν∙) was adopted to represent the remaining fraction of sites that were affected in the material by one unit dose at which the damage/change/modification of its properties occurs. The recovery factor of the effect and the delayed retardation enhancement factor are included in the model.
* Reconstructed cohort: no mailing for this day survives in the archive. Papers are grouped by their submission times and arXiv's announcement cut-off, assuming announcement without delay; positions follow identifier order. Validated at ~91% exact-day agreement against the archived era.